Juvenile Delinquency And Religion Essays - Criminology,

Adolescent Delinquency And Religion Throughout the years, incalculable endeavors have been made to locate a far reaching clarification for misconduct. The aftereffects of these endeavors have offered potential reasons as being both organic and social. It is as yet begging to be proven wrong with respect to what powers have the best effect on youth wrongdoing, however it is undoubted that few factors obviously have an effect. The immediate connections a kid has with solid social components, similar to his loved ones, are probably going to give some insinuation of his contribution in wrongdoing. Be that as it may, it must be noticed that there are progressively theoretical settings for socialization that additionally exist as potential clarifications for a youngster's conduct. The most conspicuous of these less explicit powers are the media, network, and religion. It has been contended broadly that these three components speak to a significant wellspring of misconduct in the U.S. today. Everybody has one after another or another heard allegations against TV, for example, and how it has such deteriorating capacities according to youthful personalities. Similarly basic are the different open announcements about the absence of fellowship among residents of this nation. These objections are the same old thing to our general public; before TV was denounced, it was radio, and before radio it was funny books. So, these issues only exist as various signs of a well established concern. Another, apparently more subtle, part of this contention manages the job of religion in the public eye. In resembling it to misconduct, for all its capacity and impact, religion is substantially more confounding than the media or feeling of network. For one, religion exists on a wide range of levels and is amazingly hard to characterize in a manner appropriate to the discussion. What's more, the way that religion is such a dubious and delicate subject just confuses the quest for describing and getting it. These deterrents in any case, the multifaceted impacts of religion on wrongdoing have been contended for quite a long time. They will probably proceed, as individuals see that religion impacts the conduct of individuals, fills in as a lot of qualities for society, and corresponds with misconduct in a few different ways. The connection among wrongdoing and religion has been investigated for a long time, with just a bunch of scholars making any immediate determinations. Among not many others, three of the most powerful social thinkers of the previous 200 years, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, have all remarked on the significance of religion to this issue. Marx accepted that religion existed to give individuals a bogus trust later on and to keep them inspired during the present. In achieving this, religion additionally hindered individuals from wrongdoing by making them focus on their social jobs, while overlooking the mistreatment of separated monetary frameworks. Durkheim attested that ?social request could be kept up just if individuals had basic convictions in an option that could be more prominent than themselves? (Jensen and Rojek 309). He considered religion to be extremely interconnected with social qualities as it added to lost solid shared bonds between the inhabitants of Western culture. As peop le accept more in themselves and less in a more powerful, Durkheim contended, they become less dedicated to a related society and profoundly inclined to egotistical demonstrations of disorder. Weber, another recognized humanist, ascribed social aberrance to strict factors too. He accepted that ?strict foundations were interlaced with different organizations,? adding to both dynamic and backward social turn of events (Jensen and Rojek 309). These three endeavored to clarify the social significance of religion, while just starting to expose its relationship to wrongdoing. In spite of the fact that they neglect to satisfactorily develop the subject, the thoughts of these compelling scholars speak to some essential musings on the strict reasons for wrongdoing, and they have prompted progressive examinations of religion and misconduct. Shockingly, realities about wrongdoing and religion throughout the years have been somewhat incomprehensible, as research discoveries from various investigations have every now and again delivered negating results. Studies have demonstrated delinquents being less strict than nondelinquents, strictly like nondelinquents, and sometimes more strict than nondelinquents. In any event, when contrasts among reprobate and nondelinquent relations to religion have been discovered, those distinctions have been just minor and unimportant. In one significant examination by Hirschi and Stark, it was found that secondary school understudies held intriguing social convictions comparative with their congregation participation

How fitting is the title for the novella, A Christmas Carol Essay Example For Students

How fitting is the title for the novella, A Christmas Carol Essay The novella composed by the eminent creator Charles Dickens brings together around the subject of Christmas, as a crucial theme for the festival of Christ, yet for its practically equivalent to time of unification of individuals of various social classes. It additionally has a figurative importance of ‘rebirth’ as the supporting story is about the physiological resurrection of the metaphorical Ebenezer Scrooge from an insensitive misanthropist †the rich nobility into a kind being happy to perceive the situation of the regular workers. This in this way requires a festival: Christmas. A period of offering material and enthusiastic riches, which Scrooge has uncovered, and become a piece of in the merriment. The topic of Christmas and liberality is exemplified all through the novella by characters, for example, Fred, Fezziwig, the Ghost of Christmas over a significant time span and Scrooge as he changes into somebody who has faith in Christmas and its soul of liberality. In the novella, Dickens asks, essentially, for individuals to perceive the situation of those whom the Industrial Revolution has uprooted and crashed into destitution, and the commitment of society to accommodate them sympathetically. In the article of the novella we are informed that ‘it was Christmas Eve’, and are indicated this is when society is maybe more partitioned than whenever of the year. This is indicated when the ‘portly gentlemen’ visit Scrooge, and announce: ‘This is where need is felt most keenly†¦many are needing normal necessities’. The expression ‘common necessities’ suggests that a few people in the public eye don't have enough to give physically to take care of their families, not to mention have the option to observe Christmas. The way that these ‘necessities’ are viewed as a ‘want’ as opposed to a distress is somewhat equivocal, and could construe that this hardship has showed into a craving, instead of a certifiable need, as they have gotten so adjusted to the evil treatment got, particularly under the Poor Laws. Dickens helps us to remember the disparity among Rich and Poor in the Victorian London, appeared in the juxtaposition of Scrooge (speaking to the class of rich industrialists) and the Cratchit family (speaking to the Working Poor), and how people like Scrooge have the ability to change this dynamic, should they decide to circulate their riches. This connections legitimately to the novella, and particularly the word ‘carol’, which proposes a vocal and along these lines open articulation, something the heavy men of their word attempt to pass on to Scrooge. Dickens could be contending through this that we should all be vocal in our affirmation of Christmas, getting the message out of God through philanthropic activity and decreasing the hopelessness of destitution. Fred, Scrooges’ nephew additionally epitomizes the soul of Christmas liberality, consideration and absolution. He guards the soul of Christmas saying it is a ‘kind, excusing and magnanimous time’. He grasps the glow of mankind by the ‘glow’ in his face, and the ‘sparkle’ in his eyes. His glow underscores the sympathy that we should show one another. Miser is welcomed by his nephew Fred, to go along with him at his Christmas celebration, to which he answers ‘what’s Christmas time to you yet an opportunity to take care of the tabs without money’ which shows how Scrooge is more inspired by his own riches than being liberal and offering to Fred, whom has ‘not profited’ from Christmas monetarily, however has benefitted profoundly from the liberality of Christmas soul. Penny pincher abrasively won't: â€Å"keep Christmas in your own way† demonstrating him as the direct opposite of the Christmas soul. Fred’s persevering constancy to ask Scrooge to join their gathering, â€Å"Uncle, come† shows his confidence in Scrooges capacity to turn into an all the more family orientated individual, as he clearly observes something in Scrooge. This suggests how it is feasible for Scrooge become a reawakened individual profoundly and carry the soul of satisfaction to other people in the event that they are happy to put themselves in others. Arousing By Kate Chopin EssayNext, we are taken to visit Fezziwig, Scrooge’s student, whom showed great allure and business morals. However, similar to Scrooge, he had the capacity to â€Å"render us upbeat or unhappy† which Scrooge can do over Bob. The word â€Å"render† proposes that Scrooge is the up and coming capacity to direct whether Bob has a future or not. This is in this way, as in the Elizabethan time, the same number of Irish outsiders fled to Britain to get away from the potato starvation, subsequently significance compensation became absolute bottom, and Scrooge could without much of a stretch discover a substitution tolerating even lower compensation. Penny pincher perceives the passionate benefit of the individuals who were around Fezziwig, and despite the fact that he was not as well off as Scrooge, he was progressively rich as far as enthusiastic riches. He consequently wishes to treat Bob better, ‘I might want to have the option to express a word or two to my representative just now’ which shows that Scrooge would to make up for himself for the pressure he causes the family. Dickens utilizes this ethical message to delineate that the privileged, in spite of holding the ability to do as such, ought not defraud those lower in the social chain of importance, yet treat them with empathy, as we partner with Christmas. In fight 3, the Ghost of Christmas Present exemplifies liberality, ‘sparkling eye, its open hand’. This is an omnibenevolent motion, ‘open hand’ suggesting that he gives the soul of Christmas liberality, as a hand is regularly alluded to as being representative of arrangement. The phantom at that point takes Scrooge to the Cratchit’s house where they are constantly positive in spite of their desperation, ‘brave in ribbons’ indicating how Mrs Cratchit excuses her torment of being dislodged into the workhouses, and to be ‘brave’ as in she needs to boost her circumstance to keep up her pride and sense of pride. This transfers the message of Christmas soul since they celebrate in spite of their absence of fortune. We as the peruser get some answers concerning the injured Tiny Tim, and his richness in spite of his farfetchedness to endure. He had said that he needed others to see his circumstance: â€Å"hoped the individuals saw him in the church†¦to remember†¦who made faltering poor people walk†. The utilization of â€Å"hoped† recommends that the probability of individuals remembering him is minimal, as it is more an immaterial dream than a practical wish. This statement additionally implies the numerous marvels Jesus performed, for example, permitting individuals to â€Å"walk† once more, which Dickens may use to propose that the rich blue-bloods can do; they can fix Tiny Tim’s disease, which is as much a wonder to them, as what Jesus performed. Little Tim’s sickness was likely the aftereffect of the lacking sanitation of sewage, sullying drinking water. Tuberculosis and cholera caused an endemic particularly across enormous urban communities. Along these lines, Tiny Tim â€Å"hoped† that individuals would see his ailment, to get proactive, particularly the high society, whom were careless with the endemic, as they didn't have similar offices. Dickens utilizes Tiny Tim as a face for poor people, as they had minimal political state, as an image of expectation. He does this through his critical need, and considerate and polite mentality. By indicating how Christmas is praised through the most somber of spots, similar to a ‘solitary lighthouse’ it shows that the areas are the last conveyance of expectation and how despite the fact that the most repulsive occasions, Christmas is still what unites individuals. Subsequently, our liberality of soul at Christmas time ought to be spread over the entire of mankind, even to the individuals who are less blessed than ourselves. In fight 5, when Scrooge awakens and acknowledges he should transform, it shows his change and how he has been reawakened to the liberality of Christmas. At the point when he rises and shines, he euphorically says ‘I am here, the shadows of the things that would have been, might be dispelled’. The ‘shadows’ suggest that his actual significance of life was darkened, and that his heart has now been uncloaked to the soul of liberality.

Photography How to Make a Living from Your Hobby

Photography How to Make a Living from Your Hobby Considering that there are such a huge number of photographers out there, it is not easy to make a place for yourself in the photography industry. However, no one ever said it was impossible. You may have to start small by engaging in the pursuit along with your full-time job.You will gain some more knowledge and experience and perhaps do things you may not particularly like before you are able to make a living from this hobby. © Shutterstock.com | sergey causeloveIn this article, we’ll take you through 1) ideas and tips to make money from photography, 2) enhance your knowledge and experience, 3) marketing is essential, and 4) how to keep costs low.IDEAS AND TIPS TO MAKE MONEY FROM PHOTOGRAPHYSign up with sites that pay for photographsYou can sell the photographs you take, to websites and get a percentage of the income from your photos that get sold. The usual procedure is to sign up with these sites and maybe fulfill certain eligibility criteria such as quality standards. Those of your photos that are accepted by the site will be posted on it for people who like them to purchase them. Whichever be the site you are submitting to, ensure you familiarize yourself with its copyright and ownership information. Some of the sites you can consider are iStockPhoto, Dreamstime, Fotolia, Shutterstock and even  Etsy.com  which is a great avenue for sale of handmade or vintage supplies and items and distinct factory -produced items.Participate in photo contestsPhoto contests are a great way to see where you stand in comparison to other photographers at the beginner, amateur or professional levels. What’s more, if you’re lucky, you are rewarded.Take and share photographs of your localityCapture photos of your local area. After that, devote one day to visiting local cafes, restaurants, law firms, fitness centers or other places that might have a bare hallway or wall that could do with some ornamentation. Offer to display prints of your photographs there for no cost. At the same time, you can have your contact and price information (tags) clearly visible. There is a possibility that your local photos would be well appreciated by local eyes.Be open to itsy bitsy, one-off and low-paying jobsUntil you can establish yourself, it is advisable to be open to itsy bitsy, one-off and low-paying jobs. Well-placed photographers can afford to reject jobs that they feel either don’t pay well or are benea th them, but you can’t. Whether someone asks you to photograph vegetables or DIY-related photos or anything else that may seem silly at first, be open to it. Also, don’t bother about the pay initially. Take solace in the fact that some money is better than no money. These small and/or low-paying jobs would give you valuable experience and a portfolio that would lead you to better jobs and later to great jobs with a great pay.Offer your services to friends, family, acquaintancesThis is a great way to start off. You can offer to take photos for family gatherings, other get-togethers, small work events and so on. Opportunities such as these will help you get some experience as well as gradually improve on the quality of your photos.Sell to magazinesWith respect to  selling photos to magazines, you once again need to be able to stand out. In addition, you need to find the right magazines to suit your photographic style, get in touch with the right persons, follow-up with different m agazines at least till you get regular assignments, and possibly even pen an article(s) to go with your photo(s).Offer to help local websites with photosIn addition to negotiating with local businesses or firms about exhibiting your prints, check out their website. As you look through the website, think whether the website would attract number of prospective customers if the product photography was better or if there were better photographs of their events or staff. If your answer is yes, share what you feel with that particular business or firm. You can even consider offering photography-related solutions for their flyers and other advertising material.Follow trendsAs hinted at the outset of the article, to get into the photography business, you must be prepared to photograph aspects that you may not love all that much. The secret to success is creating a balance between capturing what you love and capturing whatever’s trending at the moment. To have an idea of what’s popular a t the moment, closely watch what’s appearing in magazines, in addition to websites and competitors.Identify what makes you stand outThe very competitive industry that it is, it is really not easy to stand out. One suggestion is to find out if a certain area of photography is not being covered by any of the other photographers in your locality or area. For example, if none of them do real estate photography, perhaps you can try your hand at that. If you find that this is an area you can definitely handle, you can proceed with it.Conduct a portrait partyThis is a fun-filled way to bring in money. All you have to do is host the photographic counterpart of a Tupperware party for a group of friends who you can invite to your home. Make sure you’re ready with the pre-sets in Lightroom so that post-production is fast. At the close of the party, you can pitch the photos to your friends.T-shirt designing and greeting cardsThe good thing about T-shirts and greeting cards is that you can s ell the same photograph plenty of times. Multiple opportunities are available for selling photographs for greeting cards owing to the considerable number of annual events that can be covered, all over the globe. With respect to T-shirts, people would be willing to spend for a T-shirt that carries an image(s) of something/someone they love such as a celebrity or sport star. Be careful about such photographs â€" they should not violate image copyright laws. You can be very creative with T-shirts, providing funny or serious photos or even incorporating graphics in addition to the photographs to make a T-shirt design really stand out.Take classesIf you are confident of your skills and have got a lot of good feedback or positive critique for your photos, you can consider taking photography or videography classes for people wishing to pursue this hobby or interest. This is especially the case when no one else in your area is offering classes of this nature.Engage in photo editingPhoto edi ting may not be photography in the strict sense however only someone with a photographer’s eye can do it well. Photo editing is a skill increasing in demand and for which there are possibilities of a great pay. In addition to having a good understanding of what a good photo is about, people engaging in photo editing should be familiar with the use of various  photo editing software.Be willing to invest some money for the sake of qualityBe prepared to spend a lot of money (and time too) even if you’re just a hobbyist. An entry level camera and kit lens will do to capture some awesome photographs but accessories (such as tripods, software and filters) are important so don’t avoid them. It will also be good to devote some time to gaining experience by taking photos, sharing them, asking for critiques and improving accordingly. ENHANCE YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCEYou can consider doing one or more professional courses in photography so that there is a greater chance of people buy ing your photographs or requesting your services. Going for a course and practicing different shots will possibly also help you realize where your interests lie or what kind of photography you like doing. Given below are some of the photography specializations you can consider if you want to get seriously into the business.Wedding photographyThis kind of photography has a comparatively low cost to entry. If you know plenty of people in their early to mid 20’s, you could just make them your clients. To be closer to pleasing the groom and bride with your shots, you must be able to communicate well with them to know things like what their vision and expectations are and the people they would like featured in the album. Stock photographyStock photography involves providing photographs which are frequently licensed for specific purposes. When taking photos for stock photography, one point you need to keep in mind is that the kind of photographs people are in search of are those that wo uld be helpful for the sale of a product or service to their customers. Portrait photographyPortrait photography, frequently also known by the term “portraiture,” is photography of one or more subjects, capturing their personality, facial expressions and features prominently by way of effective backdrops, lighting and/or poses. Landscape photographyThis type of photography is ideal for those who tend to like to just stop and take in the beauty of the natural scenery around and capture it on camera. Real estate photographyThis involves taking photos of the interior and exterior of a house for real estate agents to utilize for the purpose of selling the house.   The great thing about this kind of photography is that it doesn’t call for much in terms of gear. Just a DSLR, a tripod and a wide-angle lens would be greatly helpful. Wildlife photographyAs the name suggests, it involves capturing wildlife or non-domesticated animals (and also their natural habitat) through the lens. It is a challenging kind of photography. To do it well, photographers should have a good camera, a strong flashlight, several lens, be able to expose accurately and possess sound technical skills. In addition, they should be patient and have good field craft skills. These are the fundamental military skills necessary to survive in the field and include camouflage, stealth and observation. The majority of wildlife pictures are taken for display at exhibitions or to be printed in journals. Fine Art PhotographyAlso known by the terms “artistic photography” and “photographic art,” fine art photography refers to an inexact class of photographs developed in line with the cameraman’s creative vision. The intention of the photography is aesthetic.The fine art photography industry is saturated, and there is only limited wall space. So if you want to survive in it, you may need to develop a fan base.Apart from going for a professional course or specializing, you can consider shadowing a pro or working as a trainee in another photographer’s studio. The income may not be much, but you’ll get some useful know-how and experience.MARKETING IS ESSENTIALYou can’t expect people to come to you for business if you don’t get the word out.For starters, you should have a website. Your  website  can be an avenue through which you share things like your portfolio, contact information and previous customer references. For help with this, check out sites like SmugMug, PhotoMerchant and PhotoShelter.Secondly, get a memorable business card created for yourself and distribute it to as many people as you can. A suggestion to make the card memorable is to not just print on the front side, but on the back too. So if you’re printing your contact information on the front, maybe you can consider including something like a few tips to look better in photos at the back of the card. After finishing a project for one client, you can consider giving him a couple of your business car ds, possibly hinting that you would appreciate if he would refer your business to others who may need it.There are also a number of free and paid web-based advertising options that you can consider. The list includes Craigslist.org, Google Places, Bing Maps and  YouTube.A final suggestion is to leverage social media. Once you’ve built platforms on the social media platforms (Facebook, Google+, Twitter and so on), try to devote at least 5 minutes every day to interact with your followers and post original updates.HOW TO KEEP COSTS LOWShare studio spaceThis is a great option for a photography business that is not yet established or for photographers who don’t yet have a studio space of their own and are in need of one. You can share both the costs and the responsibility of maintaining the space.Use the services of an accountantAs the demand for your photos increases, it would be good to hire an accountant. Some of the ways his services would help are: ensuring that you are filing your taxes in accordance with law, optimizing use of your personal and business funds and maximizing yearly returns.Consider renting equipment instead of buying (wherever possible)Renting photography equipment or buying used equipment will help you experiment with different cameras and another equipment while also controlling costs. Thus, you can enhance your photography skills by trying out various kinds of lighting fixtures, lenses and so. This sort of experimentation will also help you find the tools that are most suitable for your requirements. At the same time, there’s nothing wrong with purchasing equipment if you intend to use them frequently.Build your tripodAs you make progress with your photography, you may feel the need for a still surface in the form of a tripod, to take pictures. You can save on the cost of the tripod by  making one on your own. All you need are items typically found in a home such as a tennis ball or plastic bottle, a bolt and nut.Develop and/or prin t pictures at homeDoing so will not only enable you to have considerable control over your shots and their editing but also save you plenty of money and time. Editing and printing by yourself will only cost you a fraction of what it would cost when done by someone else. For the purpose of developing manual pictures, you just have to create a darkroom environment within your house. With respect to printing, your photos would get a professional appearance when printed on quality photo paper.

Van Gogh Essay - 1536 Words

Van Gogh Essay In this essay I am going to discuss Vincent Van Gogh and post-Impressionism. Vincent Willem van Gogh (March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a Dutch post-Impressionist painter whose work, notable for its rough beauty, emotional honesty and bold color, had a far-reaching influence on 20th-century art. After years of painful anxiety and frequent bouts of mental illness, he died aged 37 from a gunshot wound, generally accepted to be self-inflicted (although no gun was ever found). His work was then known to only a handful of people and appreciated by fewer still. France in the late 19th century was in the rule of the ambitious Napoleon III. Prussian prime minister, Otto von Bismarck waged war on France, capturing Paris and claiming†¦show more content†¦Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh has risen to the peak of artistic achievements. Although Van Gogh sold only one painting in his life, the aftermath of his work is enormous. Starry Night is one of the most well known images in modern culture as well as being one of the most replicated and sought after prints. One may begin to ask what features within the painting are responsible for its ever growing popularity. There are actually several main aspects that intrigue those. Firstly here is the night sky filled with swirling clouds, stars ablaze with their own luminescence, and a bright crescent moon. Although the features are exaggerated, this is a scene we can all relate to, and also one that most individuals feel comfortable and at ease with. This sky keeps the viewers eyes moving about the painting, following the curves and creating a visual dot to dot with the stars. This movement keeps the onlooker involved in the painting while the other factors take hold.Secondly below the rolling hills of the horizon lies a small town. There is a peaceful essence flowing from the structures. Perhaps the cool dark colors and the fiery windows spark memories of our own warm childhood years filled with imagination of what exists in the night and dark starry skies. The center point of the town is the tal l steeple of the church, reigningShow MoreRelatedEssay On Vincent Van Gogh1590 Words   |  7 PagesAuthors and Artists Essay A life full of color ranging from the darkest black to the brightest yellow and days of loneliness without the company of another person is what gave Vincent van Gogh dedication to his artwork through tons of time and unwavering compassion towards his works. Through a tough life experienced many times in the wilderness, Gary Paulsen uses his past experiences to personally reach the creative minds of young children and young adults through writing. When Paulsen was 14, heRead More Vincent Van Gogh Essay1593 Words   |  7 Pages Most casual art lovers see Van Gogh as a troubled but successful artist. This is far from the actual truth of his chaotic life which was filled with failure in every occupational pursuit he attempted including painting, and was marked by episodes of depression, violence, and abnormal behavior. Thanks to the preservation of thousands of letters Van Gogh had written to friends and family, especially to his brother Theo, we have a nearly complete understanding of his feelings, experiments, andRead More Vincent van Gogh Essay722 Words   |  3 Pages nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Vincent van Gogh was born in Groot Zundert, The Netherlands on 30 March 1853. He is the son of Theodorus van Gogh and Anna Cornelia Carbentus. Van Gogh attended a boarding school in Zevenbergen for two years and then went on to attend the King Willem II secondary school in Tilburg for two more years. Then at the age of 15 he left his studies. Vincents two uncles and his younger brothers are art dealers and the inflounced Vincent greatly. Vincent also became an artRead More Vincent Van Gogh Essay1243 Words   |  5 Pages Biography of Vincent Van Gogh What drove Vincent Van Gogh, born March 30,1853, to his mental illness and suicide? Could it have been the many things he tried, but failed at in his life? He failed in many different careers, in love, and even his artwork. Van Gogh sold only one painting his entire life. Because of his mental illness, he was considered a crazy person. At the age of sixteen, Van Gogh went to go work with his Uncle Vincent, whom he was named after, as an art dealer at the Goupil andRead More Vincent Van Gogh Essay1492 Words   |  6 Pagestime.quot; - VINCENT VAN GOGH, 1890 What could be a more disturbing image than the one of Vincent Van Gogh as the wanderer? Of his time spent in poverty and isolation he sought to help those around him, and perhaps to find himself in the process. Picture Vincent as he gives his first Sunday sermon in Isleworth, outside of London. He was so passionate about his beliefs, but never really connected with the religious world. His sermon must have really been something. Van gogh traveled to BrusselsRead MoreVincent Van Gogh Essay1397 Words   |  6 PagesVincent Van Gogh was one of the world s greatest artists. Though not widely known in his lifetime, he is now considered to be the greatest Dutch artist aside from Rembrandt. He was born Vincent William van Gogh in Groot-Zundert, a small town in Brabant Netherlands, on March 30, 1853. His father was a protestant pastor which is believed to have greatly influenced Van Gogh . His mother, Anna Cornelia Carbentus, was artist that loved nature, drawing and watercolors. Her interest in all of theseRead More Vincent Van Gogh Essay1579 Words   |  7 PagesVincent Van Gogh The people back in the 19th century really didn’t accept Van Gaogh’s truthful and emotionally morbid way of expressing the way of art is to himself. It finally was seen as art through the people’s eyes. This set a stage of art that is now known as Expressionism. It is best characterized by the use of symbols and a style that expresses the artist’s inner feelings about his subject. His style of painting is exemplified by a projection of the painter’s inner experience onto theRead More Vincent van Gogh Essay1550 Words   |  7 PagesVincent van Gogh In present time, Vincent van Gogh is probably the most widely known and highly appreciated person of postimpressionism. During his brief lifetime, Vincent’s work went almost unknown to this world. His work now hangs in countless museums throughout the world and is considered priceless. His work became an important bridge between the 19th and 20th centuries. The art-historical term, Postimpressionism was coined by Roger Fry a British art critic, who described the variousRead More Van Gogh: The Expressionist Essay1609 Words   |  7 Pagesfirst of all the painter, and then the painting.quot; - Vincent Van Gogh Expressionism is an art form in which the very style itself and the symbols that the artist uses are meant to express his innermost feelings on the subject. Vincent van Gogh has often been hailed as the quintessential expressionist painter. His artwork covers a range of moods over the years, and his canvases are almost mirrors into his troubled soul. Vincent van Gogh lived a troubled life. He once described his childhood as quot;Read More Vincent Van Gogh Essay585 Words   |  3 Pages Vincent Van Gogh Although he is almost unknown during his brief lifetime, Vincent Willem van Gogh, was born Mar. 30, 1853, in Groot-Zundert, the Netherlands and is today probably the most known and appreciated representative of art. His work became an important bridge between the 19th and 20th centuries; and it was particularly influential . Van Gogh clearly showed artistic talent even as a child, but neither he or his family imagined that painting would become his career. Instead, at the age of

Green Peace - 1465 Words

We interviewed Andra Zommers from Greenpeace. The questions we asked were as follows: 1) What is Greenpeace? 2) How is Greenpeace run/structured? 3) Why did you get involved in the environment? (Your motivation) 4) Why Greenpeace? 5) In your opinion, where is the greatest concern? 6) Is there any Spiritual emphasis Greenpeace has or that you personally have? 7) What is Greenpeaces vision for the future? 8) What gives you hope? Taken from www.greenpeace.ca: Greenpeace is an independently funded organization that works to protect the environment. We challenge government and industry to halt harmful practices by negotiating solutions, conducting scientific research, introducing clean alternatives, carrying out peaceful acts of civil†¦show more content†¦Personally, Andra believes that there is a special healing and renewing connection with nature and the spirit. Although not a formal religion, she believes with many ideas of other religions like karma and reincarnation. Her spiritualism seemed not to be a very big motivation to her. She also expressed that most people in Greenpeace have no real spiritual emphasis. Greenpeaces vision is that the researching new solutions and alternate approaches will lead to a green and peaceful future. Specifically, they want to protect the oceans, ancient forests, get rid of fossil fuels and work towards complete reliance on natural resources and their protection. Personally, hope comes from seeing one individual change their stance or approach. When people take a genuine interest and change in their lives it gives hope for the larger battle. The organization keeps going because of the results and solutions that come about from their existence. Their protests and campaigns have been the source of many changes and even affecting the United Nations. One example is that they introduced a new fridge cooling system called greenfreeze. The old coolants harmed the environment, and even after bans the replacements were just as bad. Now almost all fridges use the greenfreeze system, which was invented by greenpeace, but not patent so other companies could use it without charge. I learnt a lot about Greenpeace the organization. I had preconceived notions that they were politicalShow MoreRelatedWar : Dream Or Impossibility? American President John F. Kennedy1063 Words   |  5 Pagesoccurrence in the lives of ordinary people in developing countries. Ever since the invention of the sword, nations have waged war on their enemies. Through a combination of various fiction and nonfiction texts, the Interface English textbook by Joan Green, explore the theme of â€Å"Freedom from War: DREAM or POSSIBILITY?†(83). This unit explores the history of war, people s experiences of war, and the aftermath of war. Freedom from war is but a dream. 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Personal Carbon And Emission Trading Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

string(55) " provided with C allowances to cover their emanations\." Until the nineteenth century industrial revolution, the power of C had fuelled the moving ridge of economic development which has delivered the modern society ‘s greatest achievements such as electric lighting, cars and flights. However in the latter half of the century it was noted that these promotions were non without a cost as the first hints of the effects of the society ‘s life style or progresss on the environment began to be noticed. The effects of increased C in our environment have led to the great climatic alterations that have left the universe with more losingss and potentially more loses in the hereafter as noted in the Stern ‘s study if the universe does non undertake the effects of clime alteration. We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Carbon And Emission Trading Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now As the universe unites to contend the consequence of clime alteration, a combination of regulative and market based mechanisms are being adopted to set a monetary value on clean air. While this poses a job to concerns with high environmental hazard records, it has created an wholly new industry focused on the emerging C markets market making chance for investors. The United Kingdom has sought of ways of cut downing the consequence of C on the environments and has piloted strategies like the Emissions Trading strategy which ran as a voluntary strategy and now has joined the European Union ETS covering approximately 27 EU states. The mark to cut down emanations by 34 % utilizing the 1990 baseline by 2020 can be achieved by non merely concentrating on merely concerns but besides on the domestic sector which accounts for about half the emanations in the United Kingdom. It will be of great involvement if the United Kingdom besides pioneers strategies that could assist in cut downing single ‘s C emanations as this will travel a long manner in assisting the universe in its battle against clime alteration. Introduction The consequence of clime alteration can be felt all around the universe. The old ages between 1995 and 2007 were specifically recorded as the twelveth warmest out of 13 since accurate instrumental records of the planetary surface air temperature began in 1850. Noted amongst other climatic alterations are the heat wave that occurred in Central Europe go forthing about 20,000 people dead, periods of remarkably strong air currents in Western Europe, over 15 million trees being blown down in the early hours of the forenoon in Southern England and London countries. Apart from storms, approximately 80 Hurricanes and Typhoons have been recorded which have claimed lives and Property. Floods of unusual speed has have besides occurred due to protract rainfall or drouths, because of long periods of rainfall or decreased /complete absence of it has resulted within the twenty-first century ( Houghton, 2009 ) . These alterations have been as a consequence of the nursery gases present in the ambiance. The gases have a blanketing consequence on the Earth surface by absorbing the thermic radiation being emitted by the Earth ‘s surface. The most of import of these nursery gases is H2O vapor but because its degrees are non being changed or increased by human activities it ‘s non considered as a job but the 2nd in most of import whose degrees is increasing quickly due to human activities is the C dioxide. It has the most heat pin downing consequence out of the other six chief nursery gases. If for illustration the effects of the CFC ‘S and alterations to the ozone was ignored the addition in the C dioxide has ( would hold ) contributed about 72 % of the enhanced nursery gas consequence boulder clay day of the month, methane 21 % and azotic oxide about 7 % . ( Houghton,2009 ) . In 2007, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 has ( had ) risen by 35 % ( from 280 to 370 parts per million ( ppm ) ) since the beginning of the industrial revolution. These gases and other Greenhouse gases ( GHG ) has ( have ) led to a 0.60C ( 1.10F ) addition in planetary norm of surface temperature since 1900 and if the current tendency of addition is non checked the planetary temperatures is expected to lift to approximately 1.4 to 5.8 by 2100 which invariable means more catastrophe in the universe ( Baumert, 2005 ) . These gases and other Greenhouse gases ( GHG ) led since 1900, to an addition of 0.60C ( 1.1oF ) in planetary norm of surface temperature. This tendency is expected to lift to between 1.4 and 5.8 if non checked, and constantly will take to more catastrophes in the universe ( Baumert 2005 ) . The effects of the C dioxide on the environment has since been recognized globally and pressing stairss are been taken to cut down its farther addition and general impact on the environment. The Kyoto Protocol is the first measure taken internationally to extenuate the effects of the altering clime. This understanding signed in 1997 sets an overall decrease of 5.2 % with regard to the 1990 degrees of emanations. Assorted marks were set for groups of states and states within each group based on their economic development and part to the planetary emanation. The United Kingdom for illustration has pledged to cut down its C emanations by 34 % in 2020, the European Union besides has a committedness to cut down emanations by 8 % in five old ages from 2008 to 2012 ( DECC, 2010 ) . The Kyoto protocol provides flexible mechanisms and regulations that would assist member parties to the pact to cut down emanations cost-effectively without impacting the economic development of all parties. The three flexible market based mechanisms for accomplishing these decreases are Emission Trading Scheme, Clean Development Mechanism and the Joint Implementation Mechanism. In the class of this write up we shall hold expression at the Personal Carbon Trading and Emission Trading strategy in the United Kingdom which is now under the European Union, its possible concern chances and jobs. What is Personal Carbon Trading? Personal Carbon Trading is a proposed cap and trade emanations merchandising strategy by the United Kingdom authorities in which grownup persons are provided with C allowances to cover their emanations. You read "Personal Carbon And Emission Trading Environmental Sciences Essay" in category "Essay examples" The strategy will let persons purchase up C credits to cover for emanations from the purchase of fuel for their private vehicles, energy use at place ( mainly electricity and gas ) and air power. It will non include emanations embedded in the goods being purchased by the person. The UK domestic sector histories for approximately 42 % of the entire CO2 emanations and this comprises of 30 % infinite warming, 4 % from illuming, 10 % from H2O warming, 29 % from personal travel,12 % from vacation travel and 2 % from other travel ( BERR,2007 ) . This analysis goes to demo that persons are responsible for about half the CO2 emanations in the United Kingdom and in order for the authorities to accomplish its marks of 80 % decrease in CO2 emanations in 2050, a strategy that will assist in cut downing personal C emanation decrease will be needed. There are assorted policies that have been provided in order aid cut down the C emanation from end-users of energy in the United Kingdom. These includes strategies like the Carbon Reduction Commitment Energy Efficiency Scheme, Smart Metering, rebates that could be received from revenue enhancement when put ining energy efficient systems, value added revenue enhancement decreases in some insularity stuffs aimed at supplying more efficient energy nest eggs in the edifices etc. In every bit much as these policies and inducements have been provided there is really no strategy that has been established to adequately bring on behavioural alterations to individual ‘s ingestion penchants on goods and services with C emanation In order for the authorities to run into the 2050 mark much accent has to be paid on cut downing the domestic sector marks alongside the concern and industry as about half the entire emanations are made by the domestic sectors. The Personal Carbon trading is taught to be a sort of strategy that could convey about the behavioural alterations on the graduated table required to efficaciously cut down the C emanations. The Environmental Change establishment made a proposition that the Personal Carbon Trading Scheme could take to the coveted trading strategy by binding together three basic mechanisms that could take to behavioural alteration in human existences. The figure 1 below shows the interplay between these three mechanisms to cut down energy demand. Figure 1: Beginning ECI, 2010. A strategy that can easy interplay with these three mechanisms will obvious ( ly ) offer the chances required for lower energy demand and accordingly, lower C emanation trading. Defra carried out a research in May 2008, to determine how the personal C trading will work out and they looked at the undermentioned facets: societal acceptableness, economic and proficient feasiblenesss, equity and distributional impact, and the strategy ‘s effectivity in the context of the bing policy landscape.It concluded that â€Å" personal C trading has possible to prosecute persons in taking action to battle clime alteration, but is basically in front of its clip and expected costs for execution are high † . Defra besides indicated involvement in the strategy stating that â€Å" the Government remains interested in the construct of personal C trading and, although it will non be go oning its research programme at this phase, it will supervise the wealth of research concentrating on this country and may present personal C trading if the value of C nest eggs and cost deductions alteration † ( Defra 2008 ) . PROPOSED WAYS OF CARRYING OUT COST EFFECTIVE PERSONAL CARBON Trading. Technology The United Kingdom has good established engineerings that could help the running of the personal C trading. Some of the engineerings used in running the assorted shop cards and the ways in which informations are stored and utilised each clip persons make purchases can besides be used in the execution of the personal C trading. A system that could include the personal C histories to some of the selected shop cards particularly those that can cover energy purchases, fuel purchases and the flight travels could be considered as a manner of accomplishing this trade. Besides wishing the sum of C used with the present strategy of the EUETS can assist persons merchandise easy when they have excesss with concerns and persons who needs more through a centralized information base. Social Acceptability: The extract of the personal C trading into our mundane twenty-four hours life can besides been seen in the manner the populace is presented with the cognition of the consequence of clime alteration and demand to set up a behavioural alteration.Most persons have been introduced with one shop card or the other and these cards can transport tonss of information on personal ingestions of some goods and services. If a card is made the C trading card and the information ‘s infused in some of the already existing cards or being issued and made a compulsory demand for personal purchases which includes energy, fuels and flights it could function as a voguish manner of cut downing C emanations. The CSE have besides found the success of shop trueness cards peculiarly encouraging: Estimates vary between 65 % and 85 % for the proportion of families which have at least one trueness card. However, the graduated table and rate of take up of trueness cards is likely less relevant to single C trading systems than the findings that: ( a ) people seem absolutely prepared to purchase things utilizing more than one card per dealing, and ; ( B ) these companies have established tremendous databases which firmly store personal informations and huge sums of dealing informations ( Roberts and Thumim, 2006 ) . These estimations goes to demo that the trueness shop cards has gained societal credence by the populace and if the personal C trading strategy is linked to it there will be no much hurdle in deriving single or public credence. The CSE besides calculated that the Tesco Club card database collects some 50 billion pieces of informations per twelvemonth. Based on the Tyndall Centres ‘s appraisals of dealing figures, the CSE calculated that a personal C trading database would hold to treat 15A billion pieces of informations per twelvemonth. Benefits of Personal Carbon Trading. One of the most of import of the countries of chance for the UK economic growing is the low C sector. The universe is doing a passage from a high to low C hereafter as assorted States attempts in the battle to undertake clime alteration leads to a alteration in economic system. The planetary markets for low C goods is deserving three million lbs and it is projected to turn to 4.3 trillion by 2015 ( Innovas, 2009 ) . If the personal C trading is made a policy there will be tonss of benefits for persons and the environment at big. Some of the benefits are highlighted as follows: There will be a behavioral alteration in the manner energy is being used and the less energy use there is the less carbon emanations to the environment. Implementing the personal C trading strategy will take to farther development in low C engineerings as more development in countries of less C use by persons will increase penchants for low C energy, flights etc. In the instance where the personal C trading is being incorporated into the whole economic system so there could be potencies of trading C allowances between persons and concerns. This will besides assist in farther decreases in C emanations as more net incomes persons have for practising effectual ways of cut downing their C pes print the more they will make to derive more. Execution of the personal C trading will be more favourable in footings of decrease in C emanations than C revenue enhancements. Because the C revenue enhancements on assorted goods and flight under the strategy can be viewed by persons as a mere addition in monetary value but the C trading can be seen as an avenue of honoring people actively cut downing their C use. Emission Trading SCHEME IN THE UNITED KINGDOM Emission Trading is a market mechanism designed for the decrease of pollution by the proviso of economic inducements for organic structures that have achieved quantifiable decrease of gaseous pollutants. In the United Kingdom, the emanations trading strategy ran as a voluntary trading strategy between 2002 and 2006 prior the mandatory European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . This nevertheless made it the first State in the universe to affect assorted companies and organic structures in the C trade. Though Denmark ran a nursery strategy but it merely included 8 electricity companies. Now the European Emission Trading Scheme is the largest emanation trading strategy in the universe holding the engagement of 27 European states. It aims at cut downing the green house gas emanations by 20 % below the 1990 degrees by 2020. The strategy places a cap on the sum of C dioxide emitted by concerns and creates a market and a monetary value for C allowances. It covers about 45 % of the emanations in the European Union and about 12,000 industrial installings ( Carbon Trust, 2010 ) These allowances can be obtained for free but power bring forthing companies will hold to pay for these allowances by 2013. Large emitters of CO2 are expected to supervise and describe their CO2 emanations and return the tantamount allowances of emanations to the authorities yearly. In a command to avoid any abnormalities that might happen during the class of a twelvemonth for illustration in utmost winter or summer periods, works operators subject to the EU ETS is given a period of several old ages at one time. These Numberss of old ages are referred to as a trading period. The strategy is divided in three stages. The first stage started in 2005 and expired in 2007.This was more or less a trial stage for the strategy execution. The 2nd stage is presently traveling on and it began in 2008 and will run till 2012. In this stage member provinces are expected to put a â€Å" cap † on emanations. These caps are converted to allowances known as EUA ( European Union Allowance ) . Each EUA is tantamount to one metric ton of CO2. Member provinces are expected to administer these allowances to assorted relevant installings involved in the strategy in their several states harmonizing to their National Allocation plans ( NAP ) . 10 % of the allowances will be auctioned alternatively of being free and higher per centums will be allotted in the United Kingdom and Germany. All installings will be expected to supervise and verify all C emanations and at the terminal of each twelvemonth must give up allowances to cover up for assorted emanations and can purchase emanations to cover up for extra emanations within the twelvemonth. The Joint Implementation mechanism and the Clean Development mechanism can be used within this stage to farther heighten the strategy. The Phase 3 will get down be 2013 and run boulder clay 2020. The execution will so be at the EU Level instead than single states. It is expected that there will be a diminution on the â€Å" cap † at least by 1.74 % which will interpret to less emanations of approximately 21 % less the Greenhouse gas emanations of 2005. The strategy will besides cover more organic structures and companies like the air power sectors and some metal bring forthing companies. For some it will include other nursery gases and CO2 emanations. The allowances will be greatly auctioned instead than given freely and the usage of the Clean Development Mechanism will be tightly restricted. Benefits of the Emission Trading Scheme The Emission Trading Scheme offers a flexible manner of cut downing emanations. The procedures involved are non bureaucratic as one has the option of slaking emanations by securing energy efficiency tools and using other assorted procedures of cut downing emanations or purchasing up allowances in order to cover the emanations released unto the environment . The Emission Trading Scheme offers a transparent market and liquid market that has a decreased consequence of use from the authorities. There is a correlativity between energy monetary values and C monetary values. During the Phase 1 of the EU ETS ( 2005-2007 ) , the supply for C allowances was fixed and determined by the National Allocation Plan of each state of the European Union. The monetary value of C was traded for approximately 7 euros in the half of 2005, it rose and steadily peaked at 29 euros per metric ton in July and so fell to 20 euros per metric ton a month subsequently. The monetary value of C besides rose to 30 euros per metric ton in April 2006 and so fell to 10euros by the terminal of the month. Some of the energy companies was affected as this led to a decrease in net incomes they got by grandfathering the C allowances. For illustration the British Energy lost approximately 5 % of its stock Market value during the three yearss of this downward tendency of C monetary values. ( Gulli,2008 ) In kernel and efficaciously run EU ETS Scheme can take to downward tendency of electricity and gas monetary values as fewer emanations from the power Stationss will intend less allowances to be provided to cover emanations produced. Decision The Kyoto pact has provided three chief mechanisms to assist cut down the rate of C emanations to the environment. One of the mechanisms that have been demoing a possible decrease in C emanation is the emanation trading strategy. The European Union proposed a decrease in nursery gases by 21 % in 2020 below the 2005 degrees. In 2009, the CO2 emanations was reduced by 11 % ( Good,2010 ) . In every bit much as the planetary economic downswing played a important function it is believed that the strategy can actively cut down the C emanations from about 10,000 power installings soon under the strategy. Since the strategy works chiefly by high C dioxide emitters purchasing higher C credits for the sum they emit. For the United Kingdom which is under the European Union to efficaciously run into their 12.5 % C decrease mark by 2020 it is imperative that the sector that emits about half the emanations should be decently catered for in footings of making and strategy or policy that will help decrease in emanations. The domestic sector has been noted to account for approximately 40 % of the emanations in the United Kingdom and suggestions are that a strategy such as the personal C trading strategy would help a behavioural alteration in person ‘s high C emanations ensuing from energy ( electricity and gas ) ingestions, flight travels, and personal fuel ingestion can assist in cut downing and accomplishing the C emanations mark. There are benefits of the personal C trading strategy and the emanations trading strategy both to persons and the environment at big. With effectual running of this strategy power monetary values can be affected and besides the clime alteration effects can be curbed. How to cite Personal Carbon And Emission Trading Environmental Sciences Essay, Essay examples

Ripple Effects Upon Economy Essays - Keynesian Economics, Inflation

Ripple Effects Upon Economy There are several things that can cause a ripple effect in our economy. There are economic facts, or things that will happen no matter what, that start to affect more and more people, until they sooner or later effect everybody. The Keynesian Transmission Mechanism is a good example of something that has a ripple effect on everybody. The Keynesian mechanism has three stages, each of which has an effect on something. The first stage is the increase or decrease in the supply of money (A-1). The second stage is for the investment to rise or fall in conjunction with the change of the money supply (B-1). The third and final stage in the mechanism, is for the total expenditure/aggregate demand curve to shift accordingly to the both the money supply, and the investment. There are also some walls that block the mechanism from working, that have ripple effects on the economy. These include the Liquidity trap, and Interest-Insensitive Investment. In the first stage of the Keynesian Transmission Mechanism, the money supply is either raised, or lowered by the Fed. They do this by buying and selling bonds to the public. If they buy bonds back, then they are essentially lowering the money supply, where as if they sell them, then they are raising the money supply. Looking at this alone, one can predict a rise or a fall in the amount of each individual has due to the scarcity of money, or the lack there of. This will have a ripple effect on the economy, because people will save more if they have less, and spend more if they have more (C-1). For example, if the Fed were to increase the money supply would cause a surplus of money in the money market. This in turn will have an effect on the interest rates. The interest rates will lower due to the money surplus (B-1). Because of the lower interest rate, the AD curve will shift to the right. This happens due to a drop in the price level because of the lower interest rate. With the lower interest rate, the price of houses and cars will go down. This in turn raises total expenditures, and Real GDP. If Real GDP raises, then the unemployment goes down, do to the inverse relationship between GDP and Unemployment. Basically this all means that when the money supply increases, there will be more money in ones pockets. With more money in ones pocket, they will be more likely to look into and possibly buy a new car or house. The resurgence of buying power by the public will cause Real GDP to shift to the right. There are also more people working to get the money. The opposite is also true (D-1.2.3). If the Fed were to decide to buy back some bonds, then the money supply would be lowered, causing an increase in the interest rate, which in turn will shift the AD curve to the left. And because of the leftward shift in the AD curve, the inverse relationship states that unemployment will be higher. Meaning that there will be fewer jobs, and more people searching for them. There are two traps in the Keynesian Transmission Mechanism. The first is called the Liquidity Trap. This occurs when the Demand for money is at a horizontal position (E-1). This means that it would not matter if the money supply were to be increased from S1 to S2, the demand would stay the same. Because of this, there would be no change in the interest rate, so investment and Real GDP would not be affected. Basically there would be more money out there, but it wouldn't be as needed. The second trap is the Interest-Insensitive Investment. This means that the investment would not change due to a change in the interest rate. If the interest rate doesn't affect the investment, then the investment would not be able to cause a shift of either left or right of the AD curve. This usually happens if a firm or a corporation is expecting an increase in the interest rate, even though it is low at the time. The corporation will not be as likely to invest knowing that they will get burned later on. Since in either way, you have an increase in the money supply, there will be a result that affects everybody. If the money supply is increased, and the AD curve doesn't shift to the right, then there will be more money to

The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips IB Chemistry is tough. If you are reading this syllabus, I assume you are interested in potentially taking this course or you are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I'll discuss every topic covered in IB Chemistry Standard Level and IB Chemistry Higher Level and the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand in each topic. IB Chemistry SL and HL Core Both IB Chemistry SL and HL cover the first 11 topics (a total of 95 hours), and HL additionally covers topics 12 to 21 (an additional 60 hours). For both levels, you'll also study one of the four options A-D (15 hours for SL, 25 hours for HL). Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #1: Stoichiometric Relationships- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change 1.1 "Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, which have different properties from their component elements." "Mixtures contain more than one element and/or compound that are not chemically bonded together and so retain their individual properties." "Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous." The mole concept 1.2 "The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance." 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Topic #2: Atomic Structure- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The nuclear atom 2.1 "Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons)." "Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus." "The mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element from its isotopic composition." Electron configuration 2.2 "Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited electrons return to a lower energy level." "The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies." "The main energy level or shell is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum number of electrons, 2n2." "A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s, p, d and f sub-levels of successively higher energies." "Sub-levels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron." "Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical environment and can hold two electrons of opposite spin." Topic #3: Periodicity- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Periodic table 3.1 "The periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub- levels- s, p, d, and f." "The periodic table consists of groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows)." "The period number (n) is the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons." "The number of the principal energy level and the number of the valence electrons in an atom can be deduced from its position on the periodic table." "The periodic table shows the positions of metals, non-metals and metalloids." Periodic trends 3.2 "Vertical and horizontal trends in the periodic table exist for atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity." "Trends in metallic and non-metallic behaviour are due to the trends above." "Oxides change from basic through amphoteric to acidic across a period." Topic #4: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Ionic bonding and structure 4.1 "Positive ions (cations) form by metals losing valence electrons." "Negative ions (anions) form by non-metals gaining electrons." "The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electron configuration of the atom." "The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions." "Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures." Covalent bonding 4.2 "A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the positively charged nuclei." "Single, double and triple covalent bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of electrons respectively." "Bond length decreases and bond strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases." "Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms." Covalent structures 4.3 "Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the valence electrons in a covalently bonded species." "The â€Å"octet rule† refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence shell with a total of 8 electrons." "Some atoms, like Be and B, might form stable compounds with incomplete octets of electrons." "Resonance structures occur when there is more than one possible position for a double bond in a molecule." "Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion of electron pairs according to VSEPR theory." "Carbon and silicon form giant covalent/network covalent structures." Intermolecular forces 4.4 "Intermolecular forces include London (dispersion) forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding." "The relative strengths of these interactions are London (dispersion) forces dipole-dipole forces hydrogen bonds." Metallic bonding 4.5 "A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalized electrons." "The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion." "Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced properties." Topic #5: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 9 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Measuring energy changes 5.1 "Heat is a form of energy." "Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles." "Total energy is conserved in chemical reactions." "Chemical reactions that involve transfer of heat between the system and the surroundings are described as endothermic or exothermic." "The enthalpy change (∆H) for chemical reactions is indicated in kJ mol-1." "∆H values are usually expressed under standard conditions, given by ∆H °, including standard states." Hess’s Law 5.2 "The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps." Bond enthalpies 5.3 "Bond-forming releases energy and bond-breaking requires energy." "Average bond enthalpy is the energy needed to break one mol of a bond in a gaseous molecule averaged over similar compounds." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #6: Chemical Kinetics- 7 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Collision theory and rates of reaction 6.1 "Species react as a result of collisions of sufficient energy and proper orientation." "The rate of reaction is expressed as the change in concentration of a particular reactant/product per unit time." "Concentration changes in a reaction can be followed indirectly by monitoring changes in mass, volume and colour." "Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy that colliding molecules need in order to have successful collisions leading to a reaction." "By decreasing Ea, a catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without itself being permanently chemically changed." Topic #7: Equilibrium- 4.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Equilibrium 7.1 "A state of equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal." "The equilibrium law describes how the equilibrium constant (Kc) can be determined for a particular chemical reaction." "The magnitude of the equilibrium constant indicates the extent of a reaction at equilibrium and is temperature dependent." "The reaction quotient (Q) measures the relative amount of products and reactants present during a reaction at a particular point in time. Q is the equilibrium expression with non-equilibrium concentrations. The position of the equilibrium changes with changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature." "A catalyst has no effect on the position of equilibrium or the equilibrium constant." Topic #8: Acids and Bases- 6.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Theories of acids and bases 8.1 "A Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acid is a proton/H+ donor and a Brà ¸nsted–Lowry base is a proton/H+ acceptor." "Amphiprotic species can act as both Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acids and bases." "A pair of species differing by a single proton is called a conjugate acid-base pair." Properties of acids and bases 8.2 "Most acids have observable characteristic chemical reactions with reactive metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, hydrogen carbonates and carbonates." "Salt and water are produced in exothermic neutralization reactions." The pH scale 8.3 "pH = − log[H+(aq)] and [H+] = 10−pH." "A change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in the hydrogen ion concentration [ð   »Ã°   »+]." "pH values distinguish between acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions." "The ionic product constant, ð   ¾Ã°   ¾Ã° â€˜ ¤Ã° â€˜ ¤ = [H+][OH−] = 10−14 at 298 K." Strong and weak acids and bases 8.4 "Strong and weak acids and bases differ in the extent of ionization." "Strong acids and bases of equal concentrations have higher conductivities than weak acids and bases." "A strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate base." "A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid." Acid deposition 8.5 "Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved CO2 and has a pH of 5.6. Acid deposition has a pH below 5.6." "Acid deposition is formed when nitrogen or sulfur oxides dissolve in water to form HNO3, HNO2, H2SO4 and H2SO3." "Sources of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and the effects of acid deposition should be covered." Topic #9: Redox Processes- 8 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Oxidation and reduction 9.1 "Oxidation and reduction can be considered in terms of oxygen gain/hydrogen loss, electron transfer or change in oxidation number." "An oxidizing agent is reduced and a reducing agent is oxidized." "Variable oxidation numbers exist for transition metals and for most main-group non-metals." "The activity series ranks metals according to the ease with which they undergo oxidation." "The Winkler Method can be used to measure biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), used as a measure of the degree of pollution in a water sample." Electrochemical cells 9.2 Voltaic (Galvanic) cells "Voltaic cells convert energy from spontaneous, exothermic chemical processes to electrical energy." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (positive electrode) in a voltaic cell." Electrolytic cells "Electrolytic cells convert electrical energy to chemical energy, by bringing about non-spontaneous processes." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (negative electrode) in an electrolytic cell." Topic #10: Organic Chemistry- 11 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Fundamentals of organic chemistry 10.1 "A homologous series is a series of compounds of the same family, with the same general formula, which differ from each other by a common structural unit." "Structural formulas can be represented in full and condensed format." "Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms." "Functional groups are the reactive parts of molecules." "Saturated compounds contain single bonds only and unsaturated compounds contain double or triple bonds." "Benzene is an aromatic, unsaturated hydrocarbon." Functional group chemistry 10.2 Alkanes: "Alkanes have low reactivity and undergo free-radical substitution reactions." Alkenes: "Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and undergo addition reactions. Bromine water can be used to distinguish between alkenes and alkanes." Alcohols: "Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with acids (also called esterification or condensation) and some undergo oxidation reactions." Halogenoalkanes: "Halogenoalkanes are more reactive than alkanes. They can undergo (nucleophilic) substitution reactions. A nucleophile is an electron-rich species containing a lone pair that it donates to an electron-deficient carbon." Polymers: "Addition polymers consist of a wide range of monomers and form the basis of the plastics industry." Benzene: "Benzene does not readily undergo addition reactions but does undergo electrophilic substitution reactions." Topic #11: Measurement and Data Processing- 10 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results 11.1 "Qualitative data includes all non-numerical information obtained from observations not from measurement." "Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and are always associated with random errors/uncertainties, determined by the apparatus, and by human limitations such as reaction times." "Propagation of random errors in data processing shows the impact of the uncertainties on the final result." "Experimental design and procedure usually lead to systematic errors in measurement, which cause a deviation in a particular direction." "Repeat trials and measurements will reduce random errors but not systematic errors." Graphical techniques 11.2 "Graphical techniques are an effective means of communicating the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, and can lead to determination of physical quantities." "Sketched graphs have labeled but unscaled axes, and are used to show qualitative trends, such as variables that are proportional or inversely proportional." "Drawn graphs have labeled and scaled axes, and are used in quantitative measurements." Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds 11.3 "The degree of unsaturation or index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD) can be used to determine from a molecular formula the number of rings or multiple bonds in a molecule." "Mass spectrometry (MS), proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) and infrared spectroscopy (IR) are techniques that can be used to help identify compounds and to determine their structure." Additional Higher Level Topics These topics (a total of 60 hours) are only for Higher Level students. Topic #12: Atomic Structure- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrons in atoms (HL ONLY) 12.1 "In an emission spectrum, the limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to the first ionization energy." "Trends in first ionization energy across periods account for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms." "Successive ionization energy data for an element give information that shows relations to electron configurations." Topic #13: The Periodic Table: Transition Metals- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand First-row d-block elements (HL ONLY) 13.1 "Transition elements have variable oxidation states, form complex ions with ligands, have coloured compounds, and display catalytic and magnetic properties." "Zn is not considered to be a transition element as it does not form ions with incomplete d-orbitals." "Transition elements show an oxidation state of +2 when the s-electrons are removed." Coloured complexes (HL ONLY) 13.2 "The d sub-level splits into two sets of orbitals of different energy in a complex ion." "Complexes of d-block elements are coloured, as light is absorbed when an electron is excited between the d-orbitals." "The colour absorbed is complementary to the colour observed." Topic #14: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Further aspects of covalent bonding and structure (HL ONLY) 14.1 "Covalent bonds result from the overlap of atomic orbitals. A sigma bond (ÏÆ') is formed by the direct head-on/end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. A pi bond (Ï€) is formed by the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms." "Formal charge (FC) can be used to decide which Lewis (electron dot) structure is preferred from several. The FC is the charge an atom would have if all atoms in the molecule had the same electronegativity. FC = (Number of valence electrons)- ½(Number of bonding electrons)-(Number of non-bonding electrons). The Lewis (electron dot) structure with the atoms having FC values closest to zero is preferred." "Exceptions to the octet rule include some species having incomplete octets and expanded octets." "Delocalization involves electrons that are shared by/between all atoms in a molecule or ion as opposed to being localized between a pair of atoms." "Resonance involves using two or more Lewis (electron dot) structures to represent a particular molecule or ion. A resonance structure is one of two or more alternative Lewis (electron dot) structures for a molecule or ion that cannot be described fully with one Lewis (electron dot) structure alone." Hybridization (HL ONLY) 14.2 "A hybrid orbital results from the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals on the same atom." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #15: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy cycles (HL ONLY) 15.1 "Representative equations (eg M+(g) → M+(aq)) can be used for enthalpy/energy of hydration, ionization, atomization, electron affinity, lattice, covalent bond and solution." "Enthalpy of solution, hydration enthalpy and lattice enthalpy are related in an energy cycle." Entropy and spontaneity (HL ONLY) 15.2 "Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of available energy among the particles. The more ways the energy can be distributed the higher the entropy." "Gibbs free energy (G) relates the energy that can be obtained from a chemical reaction to the change in enthalpy (ΔH), change in entropy (ΔS), and absolute temperature (T)." "Entropy of gasliquidsolid under same conditions." Topic #16: Chemical Kinetics- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Rate expression and reaction mechanism (HL ONLY) 16.1 "Reactions may occur by more than one step and the slowest step determines the rate of reaction (rate determining step/RDS)." "The molecularity of an elementary step is the number of reactant particles taking part in that step." "The order of a reaction can be either integer or fractional in nature. The order of a reaction can describe, with respect to a reactant, the number of particles taking part in the rate-determining step." "Rate equations can only be determined experimentally." "The value of the rate constant (k) is affected by temperature and its units are determined from the overall order of the reaction." "Catalysts alter a reaction mechanism, introducing a step with lower activation energy." Activation energy (HL ONLY) 16.2 "The Arrhenius equation uses the temperature dependence of the rate constant to determine the activation energy." "A graph of 1/T against ln k is a linear plot with gradient – Ea / R and intercept, lnA." "The frequency factor (or pre-exponential factor) (A) takes into account the frequency of collisions with proper orientations." Topic #17: Equilibrium- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The equilibrium law (HL ONLY) 17.1 "Le Chà ¢telier’s principle for changes in concentration can be explained by the equilibrium law." "The position of equilibrium corresponds to a maximum value of entropy and a minimum in the value of the Gibbs free energy." "The Gibbs free energy change of a reaction and the equilibrium constant can both be used to measure the position of an equilibrium reaction and are related by the equation, ∆G ° = −RT ln(ð   ¾)" Topic #18: Acids and Bases- 10 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Lewis acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.1 "A Lewis acid is a lone pair acceptor and a Lewis base is a lone pair donor." "When a Lewis base reacts with a Lewis acid a coordinate bond is formed." "A nucleophile is a Lewis base and an electrophile is a Lewis acid." Calculations involving acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.2 "The expression for the dissociation constant of a weak acid (Ka) and a weak base (Kb)." "For a conjugate acid base pair, Ka Ãâ€" Kb = Kw." "The relationship between Ka and pKa is (pKa = -log Ka), and between Kb and pKb is (pKb = -log Kb)." pH curves (HL ONLY) 18.3 "The characteristics of the pH curves produced by the different combinations of strong and weak acids and bases." "An acid–base indicator is a weak acid or a weak base where the components of the conjugate acid–base pair have different colours." "The relationship between the pH range of an acid–base indicator, which is a weak acid, and its pKa value." "The buffer region on the pH curve represents the region where small additions of acid or base result in little or no change in pH." "The composition and action of a buffer solution." Topic #19: Redox Processes- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemical cells (HL ONLY) 19.1 "A voltaic cell generates an electromotive force (EMF) resulting in the movement of electrons from the anode (negative electrode) to the cathode (positive electrode) via the external circuit. The EMF is termed the cell potential (E º)." "The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) consists of an inert platinum electrode in contact with 1 mol dm-3 hydrogen ion and hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298 K. The standard electrode potential (E º) is the potential (voltage) of the reduction half-equation under standard conditions measured relative to the SHE. Solute concentration is 1 mol dm-3 or 100 kPa for gases. E º of the SHE is 0 V." "When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at the anode and reduced to hydrogen at the cathode. "ΔG º = -nFE º. When E º is positive, ΔG º is negative indicative of a spontaneous process. When E º is negative, ΔG º is positive indicative of a non-spontaneous process. When E º is 0, then ΔG º is 0." "Current, duration of electrolysis and charge on the ion affect the amount of product formed at the electrodes during electrolysis." "Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic thin layer." The coolest club of them all. Topic #20: Organic Chemistry- 12 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Types of organic reactions (HL ONLY) 20.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions: "SN1 represents a nucleophilic unimolecular substitution reaction and SN2 represents a nucleophilic bimolecular substitution reaction. SN1 involves a carbocation intermediate. SN2 involves a concerted reaction with a transition state." "For tertiary halogenoalkanes the predominant mechanism is SN1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is SN2. Both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes." "The rate determining step (slow step) in an SN1 reaction depends only on the concentration of the halogenoalkane, rate = k[halogenoalkane]. For SN2, rate = k[halogenoalkane][nucleophile]. SN2 is stereospecific with an inversion of configuration at the carbon." "SN2 reactions are best conducted using aprotic, non-polar solvents and SN1 reactions are best conducted using protic, polar solvents." Electrophilic Addition Reactions: "An electrophile is an electron-deficient species that can accept electron pairs from a nucleophile. Electrophiles are Lewis acids." "Markovnikov’s rule can be applied to predict the major product in electrophilic addition reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes with hydrogen halides and interhalogens. The formation of the major product can be explained in terms of the relative stability of possible carbocations in the reaction mechanism." Electrophilic Substitution Reactions: "Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon compound (or arene) and has a delocalized structure of Ï€ bonds around its ring. Each carbon to carbon bond has a bond order of 1.5. Benzene is susceptible to attack by electrophiles." Reduction Reactions: "Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols (via the aldehyde). Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols. Typical reducing agents are lithium aluminium hydride (used to reduce carboxylic acids) and sodium borohydride." Synthetic routes (HL ONLY) 20.2 "The synthesis of an organic compound stems from a readily available starting material via a series of discrete steps. Functional group interconversions are the basis of such synthetic routes." "Retro-synthesis of organic compounds." Stereoisomerism (HL ONLY) 20.3 "Stereoisomers are subdivided into two classes- conformational isomers, which interconvert by rotation about a ÏÆ' bond and configurational isomers that interconvert only by breaking and reforming a bond. Configurational isomers are further subdivided into cis-trans and E/Z isomers and optical isomers." "Cis-trans isomers can occur in alkenes or cycloalkanes (or heteroanalogues) and differ in the positions of atoms (or groups) relative to a reference plane. According to IUPAC, E/Z isomers refer to alkenes of the form R1R2C=CR3R4 (R1 ≠  R2, R3 ≠  R4) where neither R1 nor R2 need be different from R3 or R4." "A chiral carbon is a carbon joined to four different atoms or groups." "An optically active compound can rotate the plane of polarized light as it passes through a solution of the compound. Optical isomers are enantiomers. Enantiomers are non-superimposeable mirror images of each other. Diastereomers are not mirror images of each other." "A racemic mixture (or racemate) is a mixture of two enantiomers in equal amounts and is optically inactive." Topic #21: Measurement and Analysis- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (HL ONLY) 21.1 "Structural identification of compounds involves several different analytical techniques including IR, 1H NMR and MS." "In a high resolution 1H NMR spectrum, single peaks present in low resolution can split into further clusters of peaks." "The structural technique of single crystal X-ray crystallography can be used to identify the bond lengths and bond angles of crystalline compounds." Options As a part of your IB Chemistry class you'll cover an additional subject from the list below (typically your teacher chooses which subject you'll cover). Whichever option is chosen, you'll cover 5-7 topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional 3 or 4 topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Materials- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Materials science introduction A.1 "Materials are classified based on their uses, properties, or bonding and structure." "The properties of a material based on the degree of covalent, ionic or metallic character in a compound can be deduced from its position on a bonding triangle." "Composites are mixtures in which materials are composed of two distinct phases, a reinforcing phase that is embedded in a matrix phase." Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy A.2 "Reduction by coke (carbon), a more reactive metal, or electrolysis are means of obtaining some metals from their ores." "The relationship between charge and the number of moles of electrons is given by Faraday’s constant, F. "Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non-metals." "Diamagnetic and paramagnetic compounds differ in electron spin pairing and their behaviour in magnetic fields." "Trace amounts of metals can be identified and quantified by ionizing them with argon gas plasma in Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy using Mass Spectroscopy ICP-MS and Optical Emission Spectroscopy ICP-OES." Catalysts A.3 "Reactants adsorb onto heterogeneous catalysts at active sites and the products desorb." "Homogeneous catalysts chemically combine with the reactants to form a temporary activated complex or a reaction intermediate." "Transition metal catalytic properties depend on the adsorption/absorption properties of the metal and the variable oxidation states." "Zeolites act as selective catalysts because of their cage structure." "Catalytic particles are nearly always nanoparticles that have large surface areas per unit mass." Liquid crystals A.4 "Liquid crystals are fluids that have physical properties (electrical, optical and elasticity) that are dependent on molecular orientation to some fixed axis in the material." "Thermotropic liquid-crystal materials are pure substances that show liquidcrystal behaviour over a temperature range." "Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions that show the liquid-crystal state over a (certain) range of concentrations." "Nematic liquid crystal phase is characterized by rod shaped molecules which are randomly distributed but on average align in the same direction." Polymers A.5 "Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when cooled." "A thermosetting polymer is a prepolymer in a soft solid or viscous state that changes irreversibly into a hardened thermoset by curing." "Elastomers are flexible and can be deformed under force but will return to nearly their original shape once the stress is released." "High density polyethene (HDPE) has no branching allowing chains to be packed together." "Low density polyethene (LDPE) has some branching and is more flexible." "Plasticizers added to a polymer increase the flexibility by weakening the intermolecular forces between the polymer chains." "Atom economy is a measure of efficiency applied in green chemistry." "Isotactic addition polymers have substituents on the same side." "Atactic addition polymers have the substituents randomly placed." Nanotechnology A.6 "Molecular self-assembly is the bottom-up assembly of nanoparticles and can occur by selectively attaching molecules to specific surfaces. Self-assembly can also occur spontaneously in solution." "Possible methods of producing nanotubes are arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and high pressure carbon monoxide (HIPCO)." "Arc discharge involves either vaporizing the surface of one of the carbon electrodes, or discharging an arc through metal electrodes submersed in a hydrocarbon solvent, which forms a small rod-shaped deposit on the anode." Environmental impact- plastics A.7 "Plastics do not degrade easily because of their strong covalent bonds." "Burning of polyvinyl chloride releases dioxins, HCl gas and incomplete hydrocarbon combustion products." "Dioxins contain unsaturated six-member heterocyclic rings with two oxygen atoms, usually in positions 1 and 4." "Chlorinated dioxins are hormone disrupting, leading to cellular and genetic damage." "Plastics require more processing to be recycled than other materials." "Plastics are recycled based on different resin types." Option A: Additional HL Materials Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Superconducting metals and X-ray crystallography (HL ONLY) A.8 "Superconductors are materials that offer no resistance to electric currents below a critical temperature." "The Meissner effect is the ability of a superconductor to create a mirror image magnetic field of an external field, thus expelling it." "Resistance in metallic conductors is caused by collisions between electrons and positive ions of the lattice." "The Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory explains that below the critical temperature electrons in superconductors form Cooper pairs which move freely through the superconductor." "Type 1 superconductors have sharp transitions to superconductivity whereas Type 2 superconductors have more gradual transitions." "X-ray diffraction can be used to analyse structures of metallic and ionic compounds." "Crystal lattices contain simple repeating unit cells." "Atoms on faces and edges of unit cells are shared." "The number of nearest neighbours of an atom/ion is its coordination number." Condensation polymers(HL ONLY) A.9 "Condensation polymers require two functional groups on each monomer." "NH3, HCl and H2O are possible products of condensation reactions." "Kevlar ® is a polyamide with a strong and ordered structure. The hydrogen bonds between O and N can be broken with the use of concentrated sulfuric acid." Environmental impact- heavy metals(HL ONLY) A.10 "Toxic doses of transition metals can disturb the normal oxidation/reduction balance in cells through various mechanisms." "Some methods of removing heavy metals are precipitation, adsorption, and chelation." "Polydentate ligands form more stable complexes than similar monodentate ligands due to the chelate effect, which can be explained by considering entropy changes." Option B: Biochemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to biochemistry B.1 "The diverse functions of biological molecules depend on their structures and shapes." "Metabolic reactions take place in highly controlled aqueous environments." "Reactions of breakdown are called catabolism and reactions of synthesis are called anabolism." "Biopolymers form by condensation reactions and are broken down by hydrolysis reactions." "Photosynthesis is the synthesis of energy-rich molecules from carbon dioxide and water using light energy." "Respiration is a complex set of metabolic processes providing energy for cells." Proteins and enzymes B.2 "Proteins are polymers of 2-amino acids, joined by amide links (also known as peptide bonds)." "Amino acids are amphoteric and can exist as zwitterions, cations and anions." "Protein structures are diverse and are described at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels." "A protein’s three-dimensional shape determines its role in structural components or in metabolic processes." "Most enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts by binding specifically to a substrate at the active site." "As enzyme activity depends on the conformation, it is sensitive to changes in temperature and pH and the presence of heavy metal ions." "Chromatography separation is based on different physical and chemical principles." Lipids B.3 "Fats are more reduced than carbohydrates and so yield more energy when oxidized." "Triglycerides are produced by condensation of glycerol with three fatty acids and contain ester links. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated." "Phospholipids are derivatives of triglycerides." "Hydrolysis of triglycerides and phospholipids can occur using enzymes or in alkaline or acidic conditions." "Steroids have a characteristic fused ring structure, known as a steroidal backbone." "Lipids act as structural components of cell membranes, in energy storage, thermal and electrical insulation, as transporters of lipid soluble vitamins and as hormones." Carbohydrates B.4 "Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y." "Haworth projections represent the cyclic structures of monosaccharides." "Monosaccharides contain either an aldehyde group (aldose) or a ketone group (ketose) and several –OH groups." "Straight chain forms of sugars cyclize in solution to form ring structures containing an ether linkage." "Glycosidic bonds form between monosaccharides forming disaccharides and polysaccharides." "Carbohydrates are used as energy sources and energy reserves." Vitamins B.5 "Vitamins are organic micronutrients which (mostly) cannot be synthesized by the body but must be obtained from suitable food sources." "The solubility (water or fat) of a vitamin can be predicted from its structure." "Most vitamins are sensitive to heat." "Vitamin deficiencies in the diet cause particular diseases and affect millions of people worldwide." Biochemistry and the environment B.6 "Xenobiotics refer to chemicals that are found in an organism that are not normally present there." "Biodegradable/compostable plastics can be consumed or broken down by bacteria or other living organisms." "Host–guest chemistry involves the creation of synthetic host molecules that mimic some of the actions performed by enzymes in cells, by selectively binding to specific guest species, such as toxic materials in the environment." "Enzymes have been developed to help in the breakdown of oil spills and other industrial wastes." "Enzymes in biological detergents can improve energy efficiency by enabling effective cleaning at lower temperatures." "Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of a substance in a food chain." "Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an approach to chemical research and engineering that seeks to minimize the production and release to the environment of hazardous substances." Option B: Additional HL Biochemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Proteins and enzymes (HL ONLY) B.7 "Inhibitors play an important role in regulating the activities of enzymes." "Amino acids and proteins can act as buffers in solution." "Protein assays commonly use UV-vis spectroscopy and a calibration curve based on known standards." Nucleic acids(HL ONLY) B.8 "Nucleotides are the condensation products of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and a nitrogenous base- adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) or uracil (U)." "Polynucleotides form by condensation reactions." "DNA is a double helix of two polynucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds." "RNA is usually a single polynucleotide chain that contains uracil in place of thymine, and a sugar ribose in place of deoxyribose." "The sequence of bases in DNA determines the primary structure of proteins synthesized by the cell using a triplet code, known as the genetic code, which is universal." "Genetically modified organisms have genetic material that has been altered by genetic engineering techniques, involving transferring DNA between species." Biological pigments (HL ONLY) B.9 "Biological pigments are coloured compounds produced by metabolism." "The colour of pigments is due to highly conjugated systems with delocalized electrons, which have intense absorption bands in the visible region." "Porphyrin compounds, such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, chlorophyll and many cytochromes are chelates of metals with large nitrogen-containing macrocyclic ligands." "Hemoglobin and myoglobin contain heme groups with the porphyrin group bound to an iron(II) ion." "Cytochromes contain heme groups in which the iron ion interconverts between iron(II) and iron(III) during redox reactions." "Anthocyanins are aromatic, water-soluble pigments widely distributed in plants. Their specific colour depends on metal ions and pH." "Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments, and are involved in harvesting light in photosynthesis. They are susceptible to oxidation, catalysed by light." Stereochemistry in biomolecules(HL ONLY) B.10 "With one exception, amino acids are chiral, and only the L-configuration is found in proteins." "Naturally occurring unsaturated fat is mostly in the cis form, but food processing can convert it into the trans form." "D and L stereoisomers of sugars refer to the configuration of the chiral carbon atom furthest from the aldehyde or ketone group, and D forms occur most frequently in nature." "Ring forms of sugars have isomers, known as ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ², depending on whether the position of the hydroxyl group at carbon 1 (glucose) or carbon 2 (fructose) lies below the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ±) or above the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ²)." "Vision chemistry involves the light activated interconversion of cis- and trans- isomers of retinal." Option C: Energy- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy sources C.1 "A useful energy source releases energy at a reasonable rate and produces minimal pollution." "The quality of energy is degraded as heat is transferred to the surroundings. Energy and materials go from a concentrated into a dispersed form. The quantity of the energy available for doing work decreases." "Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished. Non-renewable energy sources are finite." "Energy density = energy released from fuel volume of fuel consumed." "Specific energy = energy released from fuel mass of fuel consumed." "The effeciency of an energy transfer = useful output energy total input energy x 100%." Fossil fuels C.2 "Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen." "Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that can be split into different component parts called fractions by fractional distillation." "Crude oil needs to be refined before use. The different fractions are separated by a physical process in fractional distillation." "The tendency of a fuel to auto-ignite, which leads to â€Å"knocking† in a car engine, is related to molecular structure and measured by the octane number." "The performance of hydrocarbons as fuels is improved by the cracking and catalytic reforming reactions." "Coal gasification and liquefaction are chemical processes that convert coal to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons." "A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases produced during human activities. It is generally expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide." Nuclear fusion and fission C.3 Nuclear fusion "Light nuclei can undergo fusion reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "Fusion reactions are a promising energy source as the fuel is inexpensive and abundant, and no radioactive waste is produced." "Absorption spectra are used to analyse the composition of stars." Nuclear fission "Heavy nuclei can undergo fission reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "235U undergoes a fission chain reaction: U235 92 + n10 → U 236 92 → X + Y + neutrons." "The critical mass is the mass of fuel needed for the reaction to be self-sustaining." "239Pu, used as a fuel in â€Å"breeder reactors†, is produced from 238U by neutron capture." "Radioactive waste may contain isotopes with long and short half-lives." "Half-life is the time it takes for half the number of atoms to decay." Solar energy C.4 "Light can be absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure." "Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy: 6CO2 + 6H2O == C6H12O6 + 6O2" "Fermentation of glucose produces ethanol which can be used as a biofuel: C6H12O6 == 2C2H5OH + 2CO2." "Energy content of vegetable oils is similar to that of diesel fuel but they are not used in internal combustion engines as they are too viscous." "Transesterification between an ester and an alcohol with a strong acid or base catalyst produces a different ester: RCOOR1 + R2OH == RCOOR2 + R1OH." "In the transesterification process, involving a reaction with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or base, the triglyceride vegetable oils are converted to a mixture mainly comprising of alkyl esters and glycerol, but with some fatty acids." "Transesterification with ethanol or methanol produces oils with lower viscosity that can be used in diesel engines." Environmental impact- global warming C.5 "Greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar short wavelength radiation but absorb the longer wavelength radiation from the Earth. Some of the absorbed radiation is re-radiated back to Earth." "There is a heterogeneous equilibrium between concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and aqueous carbon dioxide in the oceans." "Greenhouse gases absorb IR radiation as there is a change in dipole moment as the bonds in the molecule stretch and bend." "Particulates such as smoke and dust cause global dimming as they reflect sunlight, as do clouds." Option C: Additional HL Energy Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells (HL ONLY) C.6 "An electrochemical cell has internal resistance due to the finite time it takes for ions to diffuse. The maximum current of a cell is limited by its internal resistance." "The voltage of a battery depends primarily on the nature of the materials used while the total work that can be obtained from it depends on their quantity." "In a primary cell the electrochemical reaction is not reversible. Rechargeable cells involve redox reactions that can be reversed using electricity." "A fuel cell can be used to convert chemical energy, contained in a fuel that is consumed, directly to electrical energy." "Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a possible sustainable energy source using different carbohydrates or substrates present in waste waters as the fuel." "The Nernst equation can be used to calculate the potential of a half-cell in an electrochemical cell, under non-standard conditions." "The electrodes in a concentration cell are the same but the concentration of the electrolyte solutions at the cathode and anode are different." Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission(HL ONLY) C.7 Nuclear fusion: "The mass defect (∆m) is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual nucleons." "The nuclear binding energy (ΔE) is the energy required to separate a nucleus into protons and neutrons." Nuclear fission: "The energy produced in a fission reaction can be calculated from the mass difference between the products and reactants using the Einstein mass–energy equivalence relationship ð   ¸ = ð â€˜Å¡c^2." "The different isotopes of uranium in uranium hexafluoride can be separated, using diffusion or centrifugation causing fuel enrichment." "The effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass (Graham’s Law)." "Radioactive decay is kinetically a first order process with the half-life related to the decay constant by the equation ð Å"† = ln 2 /ð â€˜ ¡1 ." "The dangers of nuclear energy are due to the ionizing nature of the radiation it produces which leads to the production of oxygen free radicals such as superoxide (O2-), and hydroxyl (HO ·). These free radicals can initiate chain reactions that can damage DNA and enzymes in living cells." Photovoltaic cells and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC)(HL ONLY) C.8 "Molecules with longer conjugated systems absorb light of longer wavelength." "The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases with an increase in temperature whereas the conductivity of metals decreases." "The conductivity of silicon can be increased by doping to produce n-type and p- type semiconductors." "Solar energy can be converted to electricity in a photovoltaic cell." "DSSCs imitate the way in which plants harness solar energy. Electrons are "injected" from an excited molecule directly into the TiO2 semiconductor." "The use of nanoparticles coated with light-absorbing dye increases the effective surface area and allows more light over a wider range of the visible spectrum to be absorbed." Option D: Medicinal Chemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Pharmaceutical products and drug action D.1 "In animal studies, the therapeutic index is the lethal dose of a drug for 50% of the population (LD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "In humans, the therapeutic index is the toxic dose of a drug for 50% of the population (TD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "The therapeutic window is the range of dosages between the minimum amounts of the drug that produce the desired effect and a medically unacceptable adverse effect." "Dosage, tolerance, addiction and side effects are considerations of drug administration." "Bioavailability is the fraction of the administered dosage that reaches the target part of the human body." "The main steps in the development of synthetic drugs include identifying the need and structure, synthesis, yield and extraction." "Drug–receptor interactions are based on the structure of the drug and the site of activity." Aspirin and penicillin D.2 Aspirin: "Mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances that cause pain, swelling or fever." "Aspirin is prepared from salicylic acid." "Aspirin can be used as an anticoagulant, in prevention of the recurrence of heart attacks and strokes and as a prophylactic." Penicillin: "Penicillins are antibiotics produced by fungi." "A beta-lactam ring is a part of the core structure of penicillins." "Some antibiotics work by preventing cross-linking of the bacterial cell walls." "Modifying the side-chain results in penicillins that are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme." Opiates D.3 "The ability of a drug to cross the blood–brain barrier depends on its chemical structure and solubility in water and lipids." "Opiates are natural narcotic analgesics that are derived from the opium poppy." "Morphine and codeine are used as strong analgesics. Strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the brain, preventing the transmission of pain impulses without depressing the central nervous system." "Medical use and addictive properties of opiate compounds are related to the presence of opioid receptors in the brain." pH regulation of the stomach D.4 "Non-specific reactions, such as the use of antacids, are those that work to reduce the excess stomach acid." "Active metabolites are the active forms of a drug after it has been processed by the body." Antiviral medications D.5 "Viruses lack a cell structure and so are more difficult to target with drugs than bacteria." "Antiviral drugs may work by altering the cell’s genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply. Alternatively, they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell." Environmental impact of some medications D.6 "High-level waste (HLW) is waste that gives off large amounts of ionizing radiation for a long time." "Low-level waste (LLW) is waste that gives off small amounts of ionizing radiation for a short time." "Antibiotic resistance occurs when micro-organisms become resistant to antibacterials." Option D: Additional HL Medicinal Chemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Taxol- a chiral auxiliary case study (HL ONLY) D.7 "Taxol is a drug that is commonly used to treat several different forms of cancer." "Taxol naturally occurs in yew trees but is now commonly synthetically produced." "A chiral auxiliary is an optically active substance that is temporarily incorporated into an organic synthesis so that it can be carried out asymmetrically with the selective formation of a single enantiomer." Nuclear medicine (HL ONLY) D.8 "Alpha, beta, gamma, proton, neutron and positron emissions are all used for medical treatment." "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an application of NMR technology." "Radiotherapy can be internal and/or external." "Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) and Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) are two methods which are used in cancer treatment." Drug detection and analysis (HL ONLY) D.9 "Organic structures can be analysed and identified through the use of infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and proton NMR." "The presence of alcohol in a sample of breath can be detected through the use of either a redox reaction or a fuel cell type of breathalyser." Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities- 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA)- 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project- 10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Hopefully, yours won't end in smoke! What’s Next? Looking for notes and a study guide for IB Chemistry? We have a complete guide to IB Chemistry, a breakdown (so to speak) of what enzymes are and what they do, and specific tips for balancing chemical equations. You can also find out where to buy past IB Chemistry papers here! Curious about how you can use your chemistry knowledge outside the classroom? Try out these three recipes for slime and see which combination of ingredients has what effect! And if after doing this your kitchen mysteriously comes down with a case of the clogged drains, you'll want to learn how to use muriatic acid safely and effectively to solve the problem. Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: